Denison's Militia

DETROIT, MICHIGAN, UNITED STATES

03.27.2025

Story by Adam Betz 

Michigan National Guard

Introduction
"The Michigan Territory is a land of strategic importance, where control of its waterways and forts could determine the fate of the Northwest." - Brigadier General William Henry Harrison, Commander of the U.S. Army of the Northwest. [i]
If you lived in the Michigan Territory from the period of 1800 to 1812, you would experience communities experiencing social, political, and cultural complexities. Although the territory would not become a State until 1837, since the 17th century, the area had been identified as having both strategic and economic importance. When French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, traveled the area of the Great Lakes in his ship, "Le Griffon," he would establish what is believed to be the first European-style fort in the region in the area that is today St. Joseph, Michigan. He would call it Fort Miami, after the local Native American tribe with which he began trading. Thus, from its earliest history, we observe the emergence of a complex, multi-racial, and multi-ethnic region.
The Michigan Territory in the early 19th century was a land caught between competing visions of the future. Despite the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 formally prohibiting slavery, legal ambiguities and conflicting treaty interpretations allowed the practice to persist. [ii] This was particularly true among prominent families and fur traders who relied on enslaved labor. During this time, tensions with Native American communities and the looming threat of British influence were prominent, especially as the War of 1812 approached. Amid these challenges, African Americans faced the uncertain realities of navigating a region where legal frameworks and societal practices often conflicted. It was not uncommon to find enslaved Canadians finding refuge just across the Detroit River in the newly founded United States.
This account focuses on the actions of a man named Peter Denison, who emerged from our City of Detroit as a symbol of leadership during the dawn of the 19th century. Formerly enslaved, Denison would fight for his children's freedom through the legal system when such cases were only beginning to be considered. By 1808, Governor William Hull would award a commission to and appoint Denison to lead the first all-black militia in the Michigan Territory. What made this militia unique was that its officers and non-commissioned officers (NCOs) were all black soldiers. The militia would not only serve a critical role in defending Detroit and its citizens but also serve as a statement and proof of African Americans' contributions to the region's security and development. Their service challenged entrenched racial hierarchies and highlighted the loyalty and capability of African Americans to protect "the strait of Lake Erie" from violence and vandalism perpetrated by certain Native tribes in the area.
Establishing the Black militia under Denison's Command marked a pivotal moment in Michigan and American history. It signified the desire of African Americans to protect their communities, even within a society that often denied them fundamental rights. Denison's leadership and the militia's efforts represented an early assertion of Black agency and equality, building a foundation for future civil rights movements. In Denison v. Tucker (1807), Peter Denison became one of the first people to sue for freedom (for his family) from slavery in the United States and conceivably the first in the Michigan Territory. [iii] Although he would lose the case (Judge Augustus Brevoort Woodward presided), his efforts propelled him to leadership roles in early Detroit, namely being chosen to lead a militia regiment. The story of Denison, his family, and the men he led leaves a legacy that underscores the interconnected struggles for freedom, justice, and recognition during a transformative era in the nation's history.
Slavery and Freedom in Michigan Territory
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 was a landmark legislative act passed by the Confederation Congress to establish governance and procedures for admitting new states within the Northwest Territory, which included the present-day states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota. [iv] This Ordinance outlined a process for creating territorial governments, achieving statehood, and provided a framework for the orderly expansion of the United States. Particularly, it prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory, enshrined individual rights such as freedom of religion and the right to a trial by jury, and emphasized public education, making it one of the earliest expressions of these democratic ideals in American law. Despite being considered one of the early Republic's great achievements, it was rife with contradictions. The Ordinance assumed U.S. sovereignty over Indigenous lands[v], setting the stage for continued conflict with Native American tribes whose territories were infringed upon by settlers. The Ordinance likely influenced Native leaders such as Tecumseh to align with the British Crown against the Americans during the War of 1812.
This Ordinance's legacy was both formative and contested for the new territory. Daniel Webster briefly explained the power of the Ordinance when he stated, "It is impossible to overrate the influence of the Ordinance of 1787 in securing to the early settlers of the Northwest all the blessing of free government." [vi] The Michigan Territory, established by an act of Congress in 1805, would be immediately impacted, and in many ways benefitted, by this Ordinance.
While it formally prohibited slavery, loopholes and competing legal interpretations allowed the practice to persist in certain pockets of the region, especially among fur traders and wealthy families (see Denison v. Tucker, as previously mentioned). Although the Northwest Ordinance laid the foundation for Michigan's statehood in 1837, it also highlighted the challenges of applying its ideals to a frontier marked by social, cultural, and political conflicts. Thus, the evolution of freedom for all Americans, both within and beyond existing state lines, remained in constant flux.
The existence of slavery in early Detroit, despite the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 prohibiting it in the Northwest Territory, was driven by confusing and tangled legal frameworks, weak enforcement, and cultural traditions. French and British settlers often argued that pre-existing laws allowed the continuation of slavery, and local courts frequently upheld these claims. [vii] Economic reliance on enslaved labor for agriculture and fur trading further embedded the practice throughout the Detroit region. Additionally, the enslavement of Native Americans by Native and white Americans alike added complexity to abolition efforts. By 1837, when Michigan entered the Union, the state adopted a constitution that explicitly outlawed slavery within its borders.
The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair and Local Tensions
The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair was a naval engagement between the British HMS Leopard and the American USS Chesapeake which transpired in June 1807, significantly escalated tensions between the United States and Britain. In the United States, this event stoked anti-British sentiment among Americans and contributed to the deteriorating relationship that would lead to the War of 1812. The unprovoked attack against the U.S. Navy, combined with ongoing British impressment of American sailors and trade restrictions, outraged Americans and highlighted the vulnerability of U.S. sovereignty. [viii] In essence, the incident was a profound humiliation for the emerging United States, exposing its vulnerability on the world stage. The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair also heightened concerns about the security of frontier regions like Michigan. As tensions with Britain increased, fears of British military retaliation or support for Native American resistance in the Northwest Territory expanded. The incident underscored the region's vulnerability, particularly given Detroit's reliance on trade with British Canada and its proximity to British military forces. General Hull's primary challenge was logistical: his only dependable resupply route to Detroit required passage through the straits and past British-held Fort Malden, which controlled all ship traffic in the area. Although the Detroit River spanned approximately four miles in width at the time, larger boats and ships navigating the channel between Bois Blanc Island and the Canadian shoreline were directly exposed to Fort Malden's guns. [ix] Moreover, Hull received alarming reports that a Shawnee warrior named Tecumseh was traveling among the southern tribes, rallying support for his vision of a powerful Indian Confederation poised to challenge the American government. For Detroit, the implications of this contest were quickly growing and alarming, for it was quickly evident that Britain was cementing relationships on a war footing with the Native tribes throughout Northern Michigan, particularly the Shawnee, Chickamauga, Ojibwe/Chippewa, Potawatomi, Kickapoo, Mascouten, Fox, and Iroquois.
For the United States Government, the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair prompted a reevaluation of defense capabilities across the nation. The attack emphasized the U.S. Navy's current inadequacies, leading to renewed efforts to bolster coastal defenses and expand naval power. For these reasons, Governor Hull, recognizing the situation's urgency, began fortifying Detroit and formed the first Black militia to assist in its defense. Detroit already maintained approximately 2,500 Soldiers, a mix of U.S. Regulars, Michigan militia, and a few friendly Native echelons, but more men were needed to defend against the growing threat outside Detroit.
Formation of the Black Militia and Emerging Challenges
Sometime in the late summer or early fall of 1807, Peter Denison was provided a "written license" [x] by Governor William Hull to establish, train, and lead the first all-Black militia in the Michigan Territory. Hull would quickly offer commissions to two other black men assigned to assist Denison; Lieutenant Burgess and Ensign Bosset. [xi] This decision was as unexpected as it was significant. For Hull, who carried the burden of Command and was responsible for protecting the area of operations around Detroit, the looming tensions with British Canada and hostile Native tribes outside Detroit necessitated unconventional measures. The territory was THE American frontier at the time and the untamed environment surrounding Detroit offered as much opportunity for young men as it did risk and peril.
To these ends, Hull needed to increase his force structure to confront the demands before him. For Peter Denison, this appointment was more than a military command; it was an opportunity to assert the dignity and capability of African Americans in a frontier society that often denied them both. The militia under Denison's leadership, composed of thirty-six black men (eight of whom were believed to have escaped from their British owner, Matthew Elliott, who also was a British military officer[xii]), became a testament to the courage and resolve of a people determined to protect a community that had often failed to protect them. To understand this moment in time, one must imagine Detroit in 1810: it was a raw and rugged area. This was America before the railroad arrived when communities were perched on the edge of a vast wilderness. Hull, grappling with the frontier's endless uncertainties, turned to an unorthodox solution by establishing a militia of free Black men. To him, these men were a logical and willing force to defend the settlement. The Governor's decision was a tremendous political risk as it did not sit well with all Detroit inhabitants. [xiii]
Powerful men like Augustus Woodward, Chief Justice of the territorial Supreme Court, argued against Hull's decision to create the militia. In a letter from Woodward to Hull dated 2 August 1810, Woodward explained to Hull his concerns:
"The first of these [grievances] is your embodying the runaway slaves belonging to the inhabitants of the adjacent province of his Britannic Majesty into a militia company, appointing a black officer to command them, and supplying them with arms belonging to the UNITED STATES. The supplying those slaves with the public arms has been thought to have been done without the sanction of the proper authority…the legitimacy, or the policy, of embodying negroes as militia…are matters of greater certainty." [xiv]
But Hull believed the demand for security in this frontier outpost far outweighed the anxiety of arming former enslaved men. Woodward would demand a report from Hull to show "just cause" as maintaining an all-Black militia could be injurious to the "proprietors of slaves." Americans in the Northwest Territory were already simmering with resentment, convinced that British agents were stirring up Indian raids against American settlements in the vicinity of Fort Michilimackinac and Detroit. The Leopard-Chesapeake Affair only served to fan the flames of tension, prompting Detroit and Amherstburg (now the headquarters of British military force operating in the Michigan Territory) to muster their militias and shore up their defenses (Amherstburg being the center of gravity for British military pursuits in the Detroit area). This increased threat from the British Crown just across the Detroit River was the single issue that tipped the scales in Hull's favor to foster the growth of his military capabilities.
In his report, Hull explains that this newly formed militia "frequently appeared under arms and has made considerable progress in military discipline…these men have an attachment to our government and a determination to aid in the defense of the country." [xv] The Governor also believed in the legality of employing these men as Soldiers because they were living in the Michigan Territory as free men. Born a New Englander and raised in Derby, Connecticut, Hull was likely aware of black Minute Men who fought against the British to secure victories at the Battles of Lexington, Concord, and Breed's Hill. [xvi] Therefore, it seems only logical to employ Denison and his team of thirty-six men to defend Detroit.
Chief Justice Woodward established an investigating committee to dive into whether these men were considered fugitives from Canada. However, the committee came back and found that a majority of these men had been residing in the territory as freemen and were subject to the Michigan Territory Militia Act, which qualified free males, regardless of race, eligible for service in the militia. [xvii] Legal authority now backed the creation and sustainment of the first all-Black militia. The investigation would also be the last known official reference to the militia led by Captain Denison, Lieutenant Burgess, and Ensign Bosset.
The Capture of Detroit and Captain Denison's Legacy
The surrender of Detroit on 16 August 1812 was less a battle than a mere collapse, the weight of fear via a well-executed operational plan by the British commander who desired to secure Detroit for the British Crown. General William Hull, a Revolutionary War veteran with a lifetime of experience, found himself leading an ill-prepared army into the Canadian wilderness at the onset of the War of 1812. He had pushed his men north into British Canada but then retracted back to Detroit's wooden palisades with the haunting menace of British regulars, Native warriors, and his own misgivings shadowing him. The enemy came swiftly by way of British Major General Isaac Brock and his 41st Regiment of Foot, an experienced Commander who had witnessed plenty of combat experience in previous European campaigns, moved with precision, rallying the forces of Great Britain and their Shawnee ally, Tecumseh, leading about 200 Native warriors. [xviii] Where Hull saw danger, Brock saw opportunity, and the contrast between the two Commanders became the fault line upon which the fate of Detroit would rest.
Brock and Tecumseh wove an operational plan of psychological warfare as much as excellent infantry maneuver. They spread rumors of overwhelming numbers, allowed brief glimpses of war-painted warriors in the woods, and fired their cannons just enough to suggest an imminent and devastating attack. The thoughts of the horror of frontier warfare loomed in Hull's mind; memories of scalping knives and charred villages and bodies were the shared experience in Michigan for Americans in those days. Before any serious combat had begun, he made the critical decision: surrender. There was no desperate last stand, no measured resistance, just the hoisting of a white flag over the bastion of Detroit, turning over an entire American army consisting of 250 U.S. regulars and 1,600 militia from Ohio, Kentucky, and Michigan (Denison and his men being part of this composition). [xix]
Among the captured Soldiers was Michigan's first all-Black military unit. Their service, often overlooked in popular narratives, was a testament to the early contributions of Black Soldiers in America's early wars, yet their fate under British captivity remains largely unexamined. But Peter Denison would survive the surrender of Detroit and the War of 1812 to become one of the first black leaders in Detroit.
And so, Peter Denison and the men of his short-lived militia faded into history, their names seldom spoken, their deeds nearly forgotten. But they had stood for the American government when it mattered most, shouldering arms in defense of a country that had not yet fully embraced them. Their legacy did not quite end here. Elizabeth "Lisette" Denison, Peter’s daughter who he had fought so hard to free through the early Detroit court system, lived on in the Detroit area as a free woman, carving out a comfortable life of philanthropy and dignity. Upon her death in 1866, Lisette donated a large portion of her remaining estate to establishing the Saint James Episcopal Church, located in what is today, Grosse Isle Township, MI. The church continues to be an active congregation to this day, forever linking Captain Denison, his Soldiers, and the Denison family to the fabric of Michigan’s military history. The red doors of the church are still emblazoned with the words, “The Lisette Denison Doors”.
Perhaps it is fitting that their story, like so many others in America’s long march, is not one of grand victories or triumphant parades, but of quiet resolve and unheralded sacrifice. They served, they endured, and they laid the foundation for those who would come after. And if history has any lesson worth learning, it is that true service to our nation is rarely about recognition, but about sacrificing today for the greater absolution of subsequent American generations. Peter Denison and his men lived to that standard.


References:
[i] Library of Congress. (n.d.). About this collection: William Henry Harrison papers. Retrieved 9 January 2025, from https://www.loc.gov/collections/william-henry-harrison-papers/about-this-collection/.
[ii] National Archives. (n.d.). Northwest Ordinance (1787). U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 11 December, 2024.
[iii] Michigan Day by Day. (n.d.). 1807: Peter Denison seeks to free his children from slavery in the Michigan Territorial Court. Retrieved 9 January 2025, from https://harris23.msu.domains/event/1807-peter-denison-seeks-to-free-his-children-from-slavery-in-the-michigan-territorial-court.
[iv] National Archives. (n.d.). Northwest Ordinance (1787).
[v] Andrew R.L. Cayton, The Frontier Republic: Ideology and Politics in the Ohio Country, 1780–1825 (1986). Kent State University Press.
[vi] Webster, D. (1851). Speeches and forensic arguments (Vol. 1, p. 479). Boston: Little, Brown, and Company.
[vii] August B. Woodward, the first Chief Justice of the Michigan Territory, would play a key role in Michigan's early rulings, setting a long precedent on the Northwest Ordinance of 1787.
[viii] Hickey, Donald R., The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict, Bicentennial Edition (2012). University of Illinois Press.
[ix] Yanik, A. J. (2011). The Fall and Recapture of Detroit in the War of 1812. Michigan State University Press.
[x] Smith, G. A. (n.d.). The Underground Railroad of 1812: Paths to freedom along the Canadian border. U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/articles/the-underground-railroad-changes-course.htm
[xi] Burton Historical Collection. (n.d.). William Hull Papers [Manuscript]. Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library, Detroit, MI.
[xii] McRae, N. (1982). Blacks in Detroit, 1736–1833: The search for freedom and community and its implications for educators (Doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan.
[xiii] McRae, N. (1966). Negroes in Michigan during the Civil War. Michigan Civil War Centennial Observance Commission.
[xiv] Woodward, A. B. (1810). Letter to William Hull about the Black Regiment. William Hull Papers. Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.
[xv] Ibid.
[xvi] McRae, 1982.
[xvii] Burton Historical Collection, n.d.
[xviii]Gilpin, A. R. (1958). The War of 1812 in the Old Northwest. Michigan State University Press.
[xix]Yanik, 2011.

• Date Taken: 03.27.2025
• Date Posted: 04.01.2025 10:26
• Story ID: 493878
• Location: DETROIT, MICHIGAN, US